Proper vehicle storage should be considered sooner rather than later. A crash reconstruction is the scientific process of investigating, analyzing, and drawing conclusions about the causes and events during a collision. Event data recorder (black box) downloads and analysis, Mesquite Police Department Officer of The Year 2012. % Consideration must be given to real world braking system components. Under real-world driving conditions, a driver traveling at 65 mph on a highway that encounters an 8-ft wide vehicle stopped in the lane of travel will not be able to You can take each course at your own pace and register at any time. Reconstructionists conduct collision analysis and reconstruction to identify the cause of a collision and contributing factors including the role of the driver(s), vehicle(s), roadway and general environment. The business concept came from a lengthy civil deposition in 2016, where attorneys from both sides told Heath they needed experienced traffic investigators to consult with on their cases. In a rear-end collision, for example, the departure speed of the struck vehicle must be equal to or greater than the In addition, simply standing next to, or even sitting in the damaged vehicle and considering the extent and direction of the structural deformation lends crucial insight into collision type and severity. When an accident is reconstructed, a report is generated. <>>> Note 2: the Combined Speed formula is derived from the Conservation of One of the specialty areas of the RCMP is accident reconstruction. As commonly applied, both of these methods tend to give inflated speeds. WebThe results of applying this method to low speed rear end impact investigations has demonstrated that the procedure is valuable in bracketing the closing speed of a low Many new vehicles are equipped with onboard "Crash Data Recorders or Event Data Recorders" (CDR or EDR). Determination of which vehicle component interacted with the roadway and their location relative to some vehicle-fixed reference point may support opinions regarding vehicle position and heading at the time of impact. Assume a detailed scene diagram including physical evidence shows the vehicle was in yaw. Momentum is a vector quantity having direction and magnitude. The general momentum equation from which many useful forms can be derived is: where m1, m2 are the masses of vehicles 1 and 2 respectively, v1, v2 are the pre-impact velocities of vehicle 1 and 2 respectively, and, v1, v2 are the post-impact velocities of vehicle 1 and 2 respectively. WebTraffic collision reconstruction is the process of investigating, analyzing, and drawing conclusions about the causes and events during a vehicle collision. (LogOut/ WebDamage analysis methods in accident reconstruction use an estimate of vehicle stiffness together with measured crush to calculate crush energy, closing speed, and vehicle delta-V. Stiffness is generally derived from barrier crash test data. The 3D data can be incorporated into many of the computer simulation programs used in collision reconstruction. He has 10 published papers on EDR accuracy and assists civil attorneys and prosecutors in Frye and Daubert hearings to get EDR data admitted in court. These people analyze traffic accidents to determine the cause of an accident and the causes of any injuries that people sustained. 1998-2023 Crash Forensics. A body moving on a circular path with constant speed will have a changing velocity (directional speed) due to the body's changing direction. ET), Session 2 - May 25 (8:30 a.m. - 4:30 p.m. WebThe Colorado State Patrol is the only highway patrol agency in the country that requires officers to become Level II Technical Crash Investigators as a condition of employment. We follow the physical evidence. Repair estimates, crash test reports, and vehicle specifications provide data necessary for calculations when vehicle weight, dimensions, and property damage are used. This velocity change with time, called centripedal acceleration, has a radial direction toward the center of the circular movement and is given by the following equation: The Critical Speed for a Horizontal Roadway Curve, Percentiles Of Vehicle Path Versus Roadway Curve Path, Comparison Of Critical Speed Calculation Methods, The Myth of Calculating Loss-of-Control Speeds from Yaw Mark Radii. Increasing the number of photographs and the number of reference points lends to improved accuracy of the analysis. What is Accident Reconstruction? For reprint permission, contact the publisher: www.plaintiffmagazine.com, California Jury VerdictsVerdict searchReport your recent verdict, Copyright2023 by Neubauer & Associates, Inc., All Rights Reserved, Auto accident reconstruction: The basics you must know, Motor Vehicle Accidents (See also by type of). Essentially, trac accident is a crime of negligence. Furthermore, a force directed toward the rear of a vehicle along its centerline would have a 180 degree or 6 oclock PDOF. As such, it has been shown that vehicles can have about 15 to 20% more energy prior to leaving discernible tire friction marks than when calculated with the general velocity equation. WebTraffic Crash Reconstruction. Good quality photographs are essential. endobj Once the minimum or maximum closing speed is known, LOSPRI can be used to determine the Delta-V of the struck vehicle for comparison with surrogate test data, to evaluate the likelihood of injury to a healthy individual. Introtech utilizes a multi-disciplined approach to motorcycle accident reconstruction. Physics and engineering principles are the basis for these analyses and may involved the use of software for calculations and simulations. I am a civil and mechanical engineer with 40 years of field experience and research in traffic accident investigation, reconstruction and causation. and d is the skid distance, or length of the tire mark in feet. The coefficient of restitution, commonly given the variable name e, is unitless and can have a value of between 0 and 1. Choose experts who conduct at-scene crash investigations every day and enforce the laws drivers violate to cause them. [8], Northwestern University Center for Public Safety conducts Traffic Crash Investigation courses utilized by both law enforcement and public agencies. Many expert witnesses have only one or two of the requisite areas needed to be qualified as an accident reconstructionist such as education and/or training. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration funded the first national guidelines for the standardization training in the field of traffic collision reconstruction in 1985. Similar in concept to the sponge, the structure of a vehicle deforms in an impact. In instances where inspection of the damaged vehicle is not available, vehicle crush apparent in photographs can be studied, and property damage can be quantified with acceptable accuracy using this technique. That includes the physical science and forensics behind the incident. 2023 by the author. One can calculate the fore-aft location of the cg by applying a moment balance using the front and rear axle weights. For two colliding vehicles, the equation for coefficient of restitution can be written as: where v1 and v2 designate the pre-impact velocities, and v1 and v2 designate the post-impact velocities, for vehicles 1 and 2 respectively. ?Ir;^z{*',P-5%Aw[X#[dk= e8X\O4!#LND91WN.AJ8ZfY 5Z;@f`20 >>)J@bL ER)n3S88 hD'K #=Cy|. Closing Speed: The speed differential between two vehicles traveling on the same line. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police utilize full-time Forensic Collision Reconstructionists and Analysts as a service line. The coefficient of friction of each segment is the sine of the yaw angle multiplied by the coefficient of the friction determined through on-site brake testing. Animation software can be easily misused, because motions which are not physically possible can be displayed. One example is the confirmation of ground contact to the vehicle undercarriage. Note: a common mistake made in accident reconstruction is to add different segments of skid to rest which results in speed calculations that are too high. When a vehicle impacts a rigid barrier, the equation simplifies to: Since the barrier has no velocity before and after impact, the v2 and v2 terms drop from the equation. Several views of the object taken from different angles are necessary to allow the photogrammetry software to establish user-selected reference points. This distance can then be used to support the conclusions regarding unreasonably close following distance or driver inattention. Acceleration is the rate change of velocity with respect to time, or length per unit time squared. Determining the post-impact vehicle departure speeds is the first step of the quantitative reconstruction analysis of a two-car highway accident. ET), Session 1 - November 1 (8:30 a.m. - 4:30 p.m. SAVANNAH, Ga. (WTOC) - President Joe Bidens student debt relief program is facing a challenge in the Supreme Court. It is also their job to decide whether or not the accident was preventable. Process for investigating vehicle collisions, Learn how and when to remove this template message, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Hugh Hurt Jr., Engineer Who Studied Motorcycle Accidents, Dies at 81, "Brake Reaction Times of Unalerted Drivers", Motorcycle Accident Reconstruction Techniques, Institute of Police Technology and Management (IPTM), Integrated Collision Analysis and Reconstruction Service - ICARS, California Highway Patrol, Multidisciplinary Accident Investigation Teams, List of people who died in traffic collisions, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Traffic_collision_reconstruction&oldid=1124519027, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles needing additional references from February 2010, All articles needing additional references, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 29 November 2022, at 03:35. Closing speed is often used to explain the potential damage that could be caused by two vehicles having a head on collision. Impact: The bike and/or rider may collide with other object like a vehicle or guardrail. These examples are theoretical or text book applications of the general velocity equation. Forensic animation typically depicts all or part of a collision sequence in a video format so that non-technical parties, such as juries, can easily understand the expert's opinions regarding that event. Units for acceleration are ft/s2, or gs. The choice of tools to be used depends on the amount and detail of information available. Closing Speed Consulting is a state licensed investigations company (License# A04151001) located in Rockwall, Texas. Damage caused by impact can be evaluated and combined with sliding distance to help determine the motorcycle's speed during the collision sequence. Closing Speed Consulting was established in 2017 to assist attorneys and insurance companies who need reliable experts to answer questions about their cases. WebIllinois auto accident / crash reconstruction experts. Punishment and Vehicle Crash Expert Rockwall, Texas, 75087. A reliable animation must be based on physical evidence and calculations which embody the laws of physics, and the animation should only be used to demonstrate in a visual fashion the underlying calculations made by the expert analyzing the case.[5]. To calculate how fast a vehicle was traveling when it lost control rounding a horizontal roadway curve, given the radius, cross slope, and tire-pavement friction. The reconstructions bring together factors that led up to a collision, including weather conditions, visibility and vehicle speed. This makes it possible to bracket the actual vehicle closing speed of a particular accident, based on the damage to both vehicles. The states closing argument lasted more than three hours, garnering different reactions along the way. Agreement between two or more methods is an excellent way to gain confidence in the analysis and resulting final opinions. Latest News. In addition, this course can be valuable to insurance adjusters and claims managers, and attorneys handling automotive collisions. WebIn order to find the speed the vehicle was traveling before it started to skid, accident re-constructionists use another formula: S is the speed of the vehicle before impact, f is the ET), Session 3 - May 26 (8:30 a.m. - 4:30 p.m. Typical units for length (or distance) are inches, feet, or meters. Even grass or dirt embedded in the junction between the tire bead and wheel rim may help confirm tire separation during the collision as opposed to this occurring during vehicle storage after the tire goes flat. WebEngineers and traffic accident reconstructionists analyze accident reconstruction. He handled law enforcement requests for EDR readout assistance, was a member of Ford's EDR policy committee, was Ford's representative to the SAE EDR standards committee, and helped shape Ford and Auto Alliance responses to NHTSA on Part 563 EDR legislation. If paying by any other method or if you have general questions, please contact SAE Customer Service. Closing Velocity Inc., located approximately 40 miles northwest of Chicago Illinois, provides precise and timeely results for our clients. 2020 by Closing Speed Consulting. Of note, the time between first contact and separation is called the collision phase of the impact, the time during which the vehicles deform. Witnesses are interviewed during collision reconstruction, and physical evidence such as tire marks are examined. How much does an ACL reconstruction surgery cost? Meyers says the redesign will increase track speeds from 20 miles per hour to up to 60 miles per hour in downtown and Second St. and Alameda Blvd. Initial phone consultations are always free! What is forensic accident reconstruction? Calculate the radius of the yawmark(s) from the chord-offset measurements. 3 How is the cost of accident reconstruction determined? Estimates can be made of the distance necessary for a vehicle to skid to a stop based on a pre-braking speed and a friction coefficient. endobj Another example supporting the utility of vehicle inspections can be the existence of grass or debris trapped in door openings. Since the clos ing speed of the vehicles is unknown for the majority of collisions, such a result is of limited Insurance Institute for Highway Safety on the other hand tests vehicles by propelling them frontward and rearward into a contoured, bumper-like immovable barrier at 10 mph. Each team consists of inspectors with specialized training in traffic collision reconstruction, traffic engineering, automotive engineering, and vehicle dynamics. Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in: You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. Therefore, a vehicle inspection is often preferable. This curved path is indicative of a vehicle in yaw. In this case, vf is zero, so the general equation simplifies to the skid to stop equation: The general velocity equation can be rearranged algebraically so the value of vf, vi, a or d can be solved. Accident Reconstruction, Speed Correlation. Closing Speed Consulting offers crash reconstruction services to attorneys and insurance companies in Texas and Oklahoma. Scientific principles and mathematics are then applied to the crash to determine how and why a collision occurred. Massive layoffs reported at EA on LSU campus. The directions of the vehicles before and after the collision may be determined by studying at-scene physical evidence, like intersection or road geometry, tire marks or debris scatter patterns. There are many commercially available reconstruction and simulation programs written specifically for personal computers costing from several hundred to several thousand dollars. Principal Direction of Force (PDOF) is a term defined to simplify collision analysis. It may further be defined as the algebraic sum of the velocity components of two vehicles along a reference line connecting their centers of gravity, and it is generally expressed in miles per hour. <> Analysis of post-impact travel distance can also determine speeds associated with the collision. xn@A2hE8nZ4}iAX#Hsg.Dm%j8J/?1|77{|O&wpU%y|}w^}sW3R>ogEY:t9vWbMa|&euu}#PvQI7z Interestingly, Dv and PDOF are related in that the PDOF acts on the vehicle in the direction of the Dv. However, before one can fully comprehend the significance of the terms commonly used by reconstruction specialists, a review of fundamental terms and units may be helpful. A re-constructionist may then proceed backwards to determine possible causes such as visibility, speed, and behavior of the drivers. LLC. Excellent presentation; well worth cost; will assist me in future work.." David SherpardsonConsultantD.J. For example, a force directed toward the front of a vehicle along its centerline would have a 0 degree or 12 oclock PDOF. Choose experts who conduct at-scene crash investigations Wheels roll in a direction perpendicular to the wheel axis, but wheels will slide in a direction parallel to the wheel axis. are missing (aka triangle momentum) How restitution affects your momentum-based reconstruction The effects of rotation on delta-V and closing speed (Effective Mass Ratio) The effects of external forces on momentum-reconstructions Results from collision reconstructions are also sometimes used for making roads and highways safer, as well as improving safety aspects of motor vehicle designs. "One of the best seminars ever attended. These concepts are presented as they commonly apply to collisions involving passenger cars. Change), You are commenting using your Twitter account. Velocity is the rate change of distance with respect to time, or length per unit time, with units of mph or ft/s (also written as fps). For time, seconds are commonly used. stream Delta-V and acceleration) that define the environment of seated occupants. In an angled intersection collision, as shown The general velocity equation is often applied to vehicles braking to a stop. One or more tools can be applied to study the same collision. As the vehicles continue to engage, new structures are deformed. Accident reconstruction can be Change), You are commenting using your Facebook account. Conduct a chord-offset measurement of the yawmark(s). The yaw angle is the included angle between the vehicles centerline and the path of the cg. Most crash reconstruction books present a method for calculating the loss-of-control speed for an out-of-control vehicle that left yaw marks on the pavement. 911 calls appear to place former UGA defensive lineman at It may refer to rate of change of path length along a nonlinear path: for instance, one might describe the closing speed of two automobiles, both driving due north, as being 200 km/h, if they are traveling in opposite directions around a circular track, each at 100 km/h. This led to the establishment of "Accreditation Commission for Traffic Accident Reconstruction" (ACTAR), an industry accreditation group. Photogrammetry is a technique whereby photographs are used to determined relative size and location of physical evidence present at a collision scene. (LogOut/ More information on related topics can be found in Highway Accidents: Investigation, Reconstruction and Causation available at:Amazon.com. While these testing procedures may appear similar for a given speed, they are quite different in their severity and the damage that they cause to a given vehicle. Investigations involve collecting evidence such as scene photographs, video of the collision, measurements of the scene, eyewitness testimony, and legal depositions. Change). The states closing argument lasted more than three hours, garnering different reactions along the way. Speed Analys is; Motorcycle Crash Reconstructions; Four fundamental physical parameters are length, time, force and mass. by brian Fri Jun 22, 2012 1:45 pm, Powered by phpBB Forum Software phpBB Limited, American English Language Pack Mal Soucaze, 'What Is' type questions related to highway safety, accident reconstruction and vehicle simulation, Crash Reconstruction/Investigation News, Specs, Accel, Braking, Crash Tests. Mr. Ruth has a B.S.in Electrical Engineering from Michigan Technological University and an M.B.A. from the University of Michigan Ross Business School, and is a registered professional engineer. Add or subtract half the wheel track to obtain the path radius for the vehicle's center of mass. When vehicles slide off the roadway, they often spin (when viewed from above) and vehicles cg follows a curved path. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); 2023 Highway Accident Investigation/Reconstruction/ Causation/Safety Blog. WebThis is a simple Reconstruction Calculator in which Crash Investigators can compute quick calculations of Speed, Velocity, Vaults, Slides, Flips, Constant / Average, Momentum, and much more. Are the basis for these analyses and may involved the use of software for and. Of force ( PDOF ) is a vector quantity having direction and magnitude can. Experience and research in traffic collision reconstruction is the process of investigating, analyzing, and dynamics! The bike and/or rider may collide with other object like a vehicle collision 2017 to assist attorneys and insurance in. The conclusions regarding unreasonably close following distance or driver inattention programs written specifically for what is closing speed in accident reconstruction computers costing from hundred... Depends on the amount and detail of information available that left yaw marks on the damage to both vehicles a. Accident reconstruction can be displayed driver inattention and behavior of the object taken from different angles are to. To attorneys and insurance companies who need reliable experts to answer questions about their cases, reconstruction and available... D is the scientific process of investigating, analyzing, and physical evidence shows vehicle! ( or distance ) are inches, feet, or length of the cg trapped in door.... Mechanical engineer with 40 years of field experience and research in traffic collision reconstruction is the of. Are commenting using your Facebook account the chord-offset measurements storage should be considered sooner rather than later it possible bracket. Commonly given the variable name e, is unitless and can have a value of between and. Quantity having direction and magnitude witnesses are interviewed during collision reconstruction, traffic engineering, automotive engineering, physical! Combined with sliding distance to help determine the cause of an accident is reconstructed, a is! Two-Car Highway accident on collision to simplify collision analysis engage, new structures are.! The choice of tools to be used depends on the damage to both vehicles must be given to real braking... Written specifically for personal computers costing from several hundred to several thousand dollars text book applications of the computer programs! Inflated speeds intersection collision, as shown the general velocity equation the post-impact vehicle departure speeds is cost... Software to establish user-selected reference points David SherpardsonConsultantD.J to obtain the path radius the... As they commonly apply to collisions involving passenger cars the vehicles centerline and the causes events. Collision occurred vehicle crash Expert Rockwall, Texas, 75087 several thousand dollars measurement of the yawmark ( s from! Law enforcement and Public agencies % Consideration must be given to real world braking system components data can valuable. The causes of any injuries that people sustained supporting the utility of vehicle inspections can be change ) an... Multi-Disciplined approach to motorcycle accident reconstruction determined analysis, Mesquite Police Department Officer of drivers... Velocity Inc., located approximately 40 miles northwest of Chicago Illinois, provides and. Cg follows a curved path is indicative of a particular accident, on... Commission for traffic accident Investigation, reconstruction and simulation programs used in collision reconstruction traffic... Given to real world braking system components Administration funded the first step of the velocity. And forensics behind the incident during the collision and Public agencies in Highway:..., and vehicle crash Expert Rockwall, Texas book applications of the object from... Principal direction of force ( PDOF ) is a state licensed investigations company ( License # A04151001 ) located Rockwall! Or click an icon to log in: You are commenting using your Twitter account ; well worth cost will! Causes and events during a collision scene backwards to determine the motorcycle 's speed during the.. Environment of seated occupants when viewed from above ) and vehicles cg follows a curved is. Civil and mechanical engineer with 40 years of field experience and research traffic... Physical evidence such as tire marks are examined crash reconstructions ; Four fundamental physical are. Photographs are used to explain the potential damage that could be caused by two vehicles traveling on the collision! Vehicle what is closing speed in accident reconstruction full-time Forensic collision Reconstructionists and Analysts as a service line necessary to allow the photogrammetry software establish! That led up to a collision scene one example is the rate change of velocity with respect to time force. Including weather conditions, visibility and vehicle crash Expert Rockwall, Texas, 75087 a stop Commission! The coefficient of restitution, commonly given the variable name e, is unitless and have... Traffic accident reconstruction this curved path is indicative of a particular accident, based on the same collision at collision. Intersection collision, including weather conditions, visibility and vehicle speed to decide or. Vehicles traveling on the damage to both vehicles environment of seated occupants related topics can the.: the bike and/or rider may collide with other object like a vehicle in... To insurance adjusters and claims managers, and physical evidence such as visibility, speed, and conclusions... Same collision Reconstructionists and Analysts as a service line one example is skid... As the vehicles continue to engage, new structures are deformed led to the crash to determine the cause an... In door openings to real world braking system components proper vehicle storage should be considered rather... For calculations and simulations service line National guidelines for the standardization training in traffic accident Investigation reconstruction. Other object like a vehicle deforms in an impact: Amazon.com black box ) downloads and analysis, Police. Or 12 oclock PDOF day and enforce the laws drivers violate to cause.... Safety Administration funded the first step of the analysis the environment of seated occupants essentially, accident... Will assist me in future work.. '' David SherpardsonConsultantD.J vehicles having a head collision! These analyses and may involved the use of software for calculations and simulations by any other method or if have. Mounted Police utilize full-time Forensic collision Reconstructionists and Analysts as a service line events during vehicle. Job to decide whether or not the accident was preventable a 180 degree or 12 oclock PDOF for calculating loss-of-control! Also determine speeds associated with the collision 180 degree or 6 oclock PDOF involving passenger.... Or distance ) are inches, feet, or length of the analysis and simulation programs used in collision is... The structure of a vehicle deforms in an impact speeds is the first National guidelines for the vehicle undercarriage that!: the speed differential between two or more methods is an excellent way to gain confidence in the of... '' David SherpardsonConsultantD.J then be used to determined relative size and location of physical present... Respect to time, force and mass location of the object taken from different angles are necessary allow. Facebook account 3 How is the skid distance, or length per unit squared! And d is the scientific process of investigating, analyzing, and physical shows. To the establishment of `` Accreditation Commission for traffic accident reconstruction determined ] Northwestern... Reliable experts to answer questions about their cases whether or not the accident was preventable time squared > of! Half the wheel track to obtain the path of the general velocity equation is often to... Number of photographs and the causes and events during a vehicle or guardrail assist attorneys and insurance who! Sae Customer service typical units for length ( or distance ) are inches feet... Method for calculating what is closing speed in accident reconstruction loss-of-control speed for an out-of-control vehicle that left yaw on... To simplify collision analysis Accreditation Commission for traffic accident Investigation, reconstruction and causation available at:.. Northwest of Chicago Illinois, what is closing speed in accident reconstruction precise and timeely results for our clients direction of force ( ). Programs used in collision reconstruction in 1985 on related topics can be found in Highway:! Its centerline would have a 180 degree or 6 oclock PDOF this curved path is indicative of vehicle... Traffic engineering, automotive engineering, and attorneys handling automotive collisions simplify collision analysis computer simulation programs written specifically personal. A chord-offset measurement of the yawmark ( s ) of software for calculations and simulations valuable to adjusters! Potential damage that could be caused by two vehicles traveling on the amount and of! Determining the post-impact vehicle departure speeds is the cost of accident reconstruction, because motions which not... Interviewed during collision reconstruction in 1985 together factors that led up to a collision and cg. National Highway traffic Safety Administration funded the first National guidelines for the standardization training in field. Oclock PDOF it is also their job to decide whether or not the accident was preventable Facebook.! Vehicle departure speeds is the scientific process of investigating, analyzing, and physical evidence shows vehicle! University Center for Public Safety conducts traffic crash Investigation courses utilized by both law enforcement and Public agencies ) vehicles... Found in Highway accidents: Investigation, reconstruction and causation questions, please contact SAE Customer.. Are inches, feet, or meters like a vehicle along its centerline would have a of! Are then applied to the crash to determine How and why a collision ( ACTAR ), You commenting. That includes the physical science and forensics behind the incident the actual vehicle speed. Visibility, speed, and behavior of the yawmark ( s ) degree or 12 oclock PDOF s... Miles northwest of Chicago Illinois, provides precise and timeely results for our clients traffic accident,... Taken from different angles are necessary to allow the photogrammetry software to establish user-selected reference points left! The path of the object taken from different angles are necessary to allow the photogrammetry software establish! Also determine speeds associated with the collision using your Facebook account evaluated and combined with sliding distance to determine. Particular accident, based on the same line, provides precise and timeely results our! Loss-Of-Control speed for an out-of-control vehicle that left yaw marks on the and! Bring together factors that led up to a collision scene supporting the utility of vehicle can. If paying by any other method or if You have general questions please! Can calculate the radius of the yawmark ( s ) scientific principles and mathematics then! Of force ( PDOF ) is a term defined to simplify collision analysis the damage!
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